Salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase and derivatives thereof

ABSTRACT

This invention provides a salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase protein, a salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase gene, and a sequence which is complementary thereto. This invention further provides a method for the production of thebaine comprising the steps of (i) contacting in vitro a protein having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity with salutaridinol and acetyl coenzyme A at pH 8 to 9, and (ii) recovering the thebaine thus produced.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. Application Ser. No. 10/167,603, filed Jun. 11, 2002, which claims priority to European Patent Application No. 011141223.3, filed Jun. 11, 2001, the contents of each of which are hereby incorporated by reference into this application in their entireties.

The present invention relates to proteins having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity and to derivatives and analogs of these proteins. The invention also relates to nucleic acid molecules encoding the proteins, derivatives and analogs, and to their use in the production of plants having altered alkaloid profiles.

The opium poppy Papaver somniferum produces some of the most widely used medicinal alkaloids. The narcotic analgesic morphine and the antitussive and narcotic analgesic codeine are the most important physiologically active alkaloids from this plant. Nineteen total syntheses of morphine have been reported through 1999 (1). The most efficient synthesis of morphine proceeded on medium scale with an overall yield of 29% (2). Despite many years of excellent synthetic organic chemistry concentrated on morphinans, a commercially feasible total chemical synthesis has not yet been achieved for morphine or codeine.

The enzymatic synthesis of morphine in P. somniferum has been almost completely elucidated by M. H. Zenk and co-workers and is summarized by Kutchan (3). Morphine is derived from two molecules of the amino acid L-tyrosine in a series of at least seventeen enzymatic steps. The latter steps in the pathway that lead specifically from (S)-reticuline, a central intermediate of isoquinoline alkaloid biosynthesis, to morphine involve three NADPH-dependent oxidoreductases (4-6), most probably three cytochromes P-450 (7) and an acetyl CoA-dependent acetyltransferase (8).

Acetyl CoA-dependent acetyltransferases have an important role in plant alkaloid metabolism. They are involved in the synthesis of monoterpenoid indole alkaloids in medicinal plant species such as Rauwolfia serpentina. In this plant the enzyme vinorine synthase transfers an acetyl group from acetyl CoA to 16-epi-vellosimine to form vinorine. This acetyl transfer is accompanied by a concomitant skeletal rearrangement from the sarpagan- to the ajmalan-type (9). An acetyl CoA-dependent acetyltransferase also participates in vindoline biosynthesis in Catharanthus roseus, the source of the chemotherapeutic dimeric indole alkaloid vinblastine (10,11). Acetyl CoA:deacetylvindoline 4-O-acetyltransferase catalyzes the last step in vindoline biosynthesis.

Central to morphine biosynthesis in P. somniferum is acetyl CoA:salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase [EC 2.3.1.150] (FIG. 1). Acetylation of the phenanthrene salutaridinol is followed by allylic syn-displacement of the acetylated (activated) hydroxyl by the phenolic hydroxyl, which follows stereocontrol for S_(N)2′ substitution of cyclohexene rings, thereby producing the pentacyclic morphinan ring system (8).

Each of the known enzymes of morphine biosynthesis has been detected in both P. somniferum plants and cell suspension culture, yet plant cell cultures have never been shown to accumulate morphine or codeine (3). Morphine accumulation in the plant appears to be related to differentiation of a latex system (12). Efforts aimed at the metabolic engineering of the P. somniferum alkaloid profile as well as at developing alternate biotechnological sources of morphinans, have to date been hampered by lack of knowledge regarding suitable genetic targets. Indeed, only one gene specific to the morphine biosynthesis pathway has been isolated and characterized to date (13).

The present invention provides and characterises both at the DNA and protein level, such a genetic target, namely salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase (SalAT) of morphine biosynthesis in P. somniferum. Derivatives and variants of the protein are also provided.

More specifically, the present invention relates to a protein comprising or consisting of:

-   i) the amino acid sequence illustrated in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) or,     -   ii) a fragment of the amino acid sequence illustrated in FIG. 8         (SEQ ID NO: 14), said fragment having at least 10 and preferably         at least 15 amino acids, or     -   iii) a variant of the amino acid sequence of FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO:         14), said variant having at least 70% identity with the amino         acid sequence of FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) over a length of at         least 400 amino acids.

A first preferred embodiment of the invention thus comprises the full length salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase protein whose amino acid sequence is shown in FIG. 8 (SalAT 1) (SEQ ID NO: 14). The protein of the invention as illustrated in FIG. 8 has 474 amino acids, and a molecular weight of approximately 52.6 kDa (Genebank accession No. AAK73661). According to this embodiment of the invention, the full length P. somniferum enzyme may be obtained by isolation and purification to homogeneity from cell suspension culture, or from plant parts of P. somniferum, at any stage of development,

and from latex of mature or immature plants. Alternatively, the enzyme may be produced by recombinant means in suitable host cells such as plant cells or insect cells. The protein may consist exclusively of those amino acids shown in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14), or may have supplementary amino acids at the N- or C-terminus. For example, tags facilitating purification may be added. The protein may also be fused at the N- or C-terminus to a heterologous protein.

The protein whose sequence is illustrated in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) has salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity.

In the context of the present invention, “salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity” signifies the capacity of a protein to acetylate 7(S)-salutaridinol at the C7 position to give salutaridinol-7-O-acetate. This latter compound undergoes spontaneous allylic elimination at pH 8-9, leading to the formation of thebaine. At pH 7, the allylic elimination leads to dibenz[d,f]azonine alkaloids containing a nine-membered ring. Salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity is assayed according to Lenz and Zenk (8). Specifically, an enzyme solution is combined with salutaridinol and acetyl coenzyme A. Enzyme activity is determined, either by decrease of salutaridinol, or by production of thebaine at pH 8-9.

According to a second embodiment of the invention, the protein may comprise or consist of a fragment of the amino acid sequence illustrated in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14), wherein said fragment has a length of at least 10 amino acids, preferably at least 12, or at least 15 or at least 20 amino acids. By protein “fragment” is meant any segment of the full length sequence of FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) which is shorter than the full length sequence. The fragment may be a C- or N-terminal fragment having for example approximately 10 or 15 or 20 amino acids, or may be an internal fragment having 10 to 40 amino acids. Preferably the protein fragments have a length of 15 to 470 amino acids, for example 20 to 450 amino acids, or 25 to 400 amino acids. Particularly preferred are fragments having a length of between 350 and 450 amino acids, such as the FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) sequence having undergone truncation at the C- or N-terminal, or short peptides having a length of 10 to 25 amino acids, for example 15 to 23 amino acids.

The protein fragments of the invention may or may not have salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity. Normally, fragments comprising at least 400, or at least 450 consecutive amino acids of the protein shown in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) are enzymatically active.

A particularly preferred class of peptides according to the invention are peptides which comprise or consist of a stretch (or “tract”) of at least 5 or 6 amino acids unique to the salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase protein (SalAT) illustrated in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14). By “unique to SalAT” is meant a tract of amino acids which is not present in other plant acetyltransferases as illustrated in FIG. 2 (SEQ ID NO: 8 to 12). These SalAT-specific peptides typically have a length of 8 to 100 amino acids, for example 10 to 50 amino acids, or 15 to 20 amino acids. Such peptides can be used for generation of SalAT-specific antibodies for immunodetection and immunopurification techniques. Examples of such short peptides are shown as white boxes in FIG. 2.

In general, the fragments may consist exclusively of part of the FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) sequence. Alternatively, they may additionally comprise supplementary amino acids which are heterologous to the illustrated P. somniferum enzyme, for example N- and/or C-terminal extensions. Such supplementary amino acids may be amino acids from salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase enzymes from species other than P. somniferum, thus providing a chimeric salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase enzyme, or may be purification tags, fusion proteins etc.

According to a third preferred embodiment of the invention, the protein comprises or consists of a variant of the amino acid sequence of FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14). By “variant” is meant a protein having at least 70% identity, and preferably at least 80% or 85% identity with the amino acid sequence of FIG. 8 over a length of at least 400 amino acids. Particularly preferred are variants having at least 90% or at least 95% identity, for example 95.5 to 99.9% identity. Preferred variants have sequences which differ from the amino acid sequence illustrated in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) by insertion, replacement and/or deletion of at least one amino acid, for example insertion, replacement and/or deletion of one to 10 amino acids, or one to five amino acids. Variants differing from the FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) sequence by one to ten amino acid replacements are particularly preferred, for example two, three, four or five amino acid substitutions. Such variants may or may not have salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity, as defined previously. Preferably, the variants have this activity.

Particularly preferred “variant” proteins of the invention are allelic variants of SalAT, or SalAT proteins arising from expression of other members of a SalAT gene family. The inventors have demonstrated that within a given species of Papaver there exist variants of the SalAT gene containing a number of single point polymorphisms, some of which give rise to changes in amino acid sequence. Typically, these variants contain one to fifteen amino acid substitutions, for example one to ten, or one to six, with respect to the FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) sequence. Amino acid changes are usually conservative, with a neutral amino acid such as isoleucine or serine being replaced by another neutral amino acid such as valine or alanine, or an acidic amino acid such as aspartic acid being replaced by another acidic amino acid such as glutamic acid etc. SalAT activity is usually conserved. An example of an allelic variant is the enzyme shown in FIG. 11 (SEQ ID NO: 17), having five amino acid differences with respect to the FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) sequence. The protein illustrated in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) will be referred to as SalAT 1, and the variant shown in FIG. 11 (SEQ ID NO: 17) as SalAT 2.

The protein variants of the P. somniferum. These variants, which again have at least 70% identity with the amino acid sequence of FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) over a length of at least 400 amino acids, preferably contain the conserved amino acids shown as black boxes in FIG. 2 (SEQ ID NO: 7 to 12). Indeed, the amino acid sequence of the P. somniferum enzyme is similar to acyltransferases involved in monoterpenoid indole alkaloid-, phenylpropanoid conjugate- and diterpenoid formation (22, 26-29). Histidine and aspartate residues (H₁₆₃-XXX-D₁₆₇) are highly conserved as well as a DFGWG (SEQ ID NO:20) motif near the carboxy terminus of the proteins. The invention thus also includes variants of the FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14) protein having the required degree of identity with the FIG. 8 protein (at least 70%) and including the DFGWG motif (SEQ ID NO:20) and the (H₁₆₃-XXX-D₁₆₇) motif. The equivalent histidine residue has been shown through site directed mutagenesis or chemical modification to be essential for catalytic activity in other acyltransferases (30). Carbethoxylation of histidine residues in salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase with DEPC resulted in a loss of enzyme activity. Preincubation of the enzyme with acetyl CoA partially protected a putative active site histidine residue from chemical modification and resultant inactivation. A catalytic triad (Ser-His-Asp) as found in serine proteases and lipases has been postulated for other acyltransferases (30). The crystal structure of arylamine N-acetyltransferase from Salmonella typhimurium indicates that a cysteine residue may be a component of the catalytic triad (C₆₉, H₁₀₇, D₁₂₂) (31). The amino acid sequence of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase contains both a conserved serine (S33) and a conserved cysteine (C152) suggesting that a catalytic triad could also be essential to enzyme activity in this family of plant acyltransferases. This consensus information assists in the identification and isolation of additional members of this family that may be involved in other plant secondary pathways.

The enzymatically active proteins of the invention, whether they are variants or fragments as defined above, or the native P. somniferum enzyme shown in FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14), can be used for the in vitro production of alkaloids, particularly five-ringed morphinan alkaloids, such as thebaine. For example, according to the invention, thebaine can be produced by:

-   -   i) contacting a protein of the invention having salutaridinol         7-O-acetyltransferase activity with salutaridinol and acetyl         co-enzyme A in vitro at pH 8 to 9, and     -   ii) recovering the thebaine thus produced.

The SalAT proteins used in this in vitro method are generally used in purified form.

In addition to the proteins described above, the invention also relates to nucleic acid molecule encoding such proteins, for example cDNA, RNA, genomic DNA, synthetic DNA.

Examples of particularly preferred nucleic acid molecules are molecules comprising or consisting of:

-   i) the nucleic acid sequence illustrated in FIG. 9 (SEQ ID NO: 13)     or FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15), or -   ii) a fragment of the nucleic acid sequence illustrated in FIG. 9     (SEQ ID NO:13) or FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15), said fragment having a     length of at least 18 nucleotides, preferably at least 30     nucleotides, and most preferably at least 45 nucleotides, or -   iii)a variant of the sequence illustrated in FIG. 9 (SEQ ID NO: 13)     or FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15), said variant having at least 70%     identity with the sequence of FIG. 9 (DEQ ID NO: 13) or 10 (SEQ ID     NO: 15), over a length of at least 1200 bases, or -   iv) a sequence complementary to sequences (i), (ii) or (iii), or -   v) the RNA equivalent of any of sequences (i), (ii), (iii) or (iv).

The nucleic acid molecules (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) are also referred to herein collectively as “the acetyltranferase gene or derivatives thereof”.

The nucleic acid molecule illustrated in FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) is the coding region of the full length cDNA of P. somniferum salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase (Genebank accession No. AF339913). The invention encompasses any nucleic acid molecule which consists exclusively of this sequence, or which additionally includes further nucleotides at either the 5′ and/or 3′ extremities, for example, the sequence shown in FIG. 9 (SEQ ID NO: 13), which includes 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions. The additional nucleotides may be other untranslated regions, or endogenous or exogenous regulatory sequences, or fusions to other coding regions.

Also within the scope of the invention are molecules comprising or consisting of fragments of the nucleic acid sequence illustrated in FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15), said fragments having a length of at least 18 nucleotides, preferably 30 nucleotides, and most preferably at least 45 nucleotides, for example at least 60 or at least 90 nucleotides. In the context of the invention, a nucleic acid “fragment” signifies any segment of the full length sequence of FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) which is shorter than the full length sequence.

The fragment may be a 5′- or 3′-terminal truncation for example a fragment of approximately 30 to 60 nucleotides, or an internal fragment. Preferred fragments have a length of 30 to 1400 nucleotides, for example 50 to 1200 or 70 to 1000 nucleotides. Shorter fragments having a length of 18 or 30 to 150 nucleotides can be used as primers in nucleic acid amplification reactions, enabling the isolation of related acetyltransferases of species other than P. somniferum, or of different lines within a given species of Papaver. When the nucleic acid fragment of the invention is relatively short, i.e. between approximately 18 to 50 nucleotides, it usually comprises a stretch (or tract) of at least 18 nucleotides which is unique to the SalAT gene. Such unique tracts may for example encode protein fragments which do not occur in other plant acetyltransferases as shown in FIG. 2 (SEQ ID NO: 8 to 12), or may be chosen from untranslated regions. These fragments, or their complementary sequences, are useful in amplification reactions.

A preferred example of such SalAT-specific fragments are fragments which comprise or consist of a tract of at least 18 or 20 consecutive nucleotides chosen from the 5′ or 3′ untranslated regions of the sequence illustrated in FIG. 9 (SEQ ID NO: 13), or a sequence which is complementary thereto.

The longer nucleic acid fragments of the invention, which have a length of about 1200 to 1400 nucleotides, generally code for proteins which are enzymatically active and can therefore be used in the same manner as the full length cDNA, for example in transformation of plant cells for production of alkaloids in vivo or in culture.

Molecules comprising fragments of the FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) sequence also include genomic DNA which may contain at least one intron, and which can thus be considered to be an assembly of fragments linked by one or more intronic sequences. Such a genomic molecule may further comprise the endogenous SalAT regulatory sequences.

The nucleic acid molecules of the invention may also be variants of the sequence illustrated in FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15), said variants having at least 70% identity, and preferably at least 80%, at least 90% or at least 95% identity with the sequence of FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15), over a length of at least 1200 bases. Particularly preferred variants show 95 to 99.9% identity for example 96 to 99.5% identity. Most preferred variants differ from the sequence of FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) by insertion, replacement and/or deletion of at least one nucleotide, for example replacement of one to two hundred nucleotides, or insertion of a total of 2 or more nucleotides, for example an insertion of 3 to 100 nucleotides, whilst conserving at least 70 % identity with the FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) sequence. An example of a sequence variant is a sequence that is degenerate with respect to the sequence illustrated in FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15).

Typically, nucleic acid variants of the invention have the capacity to hybridise to the sequence illustrated in FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) in stringent conditions. Stringent conditions are for example those set out in Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., USA, 1989 pages 387-389, paragraph 11.

Particularly preferred nucleic acid variants of the invention are variants of the SalAT gene occurring within a given species of alkaloid poppy, such as allelic variants or gene family members. Allelic variants usually have up to 1 % difference in nucleotide sequence with respect to the full length coding sequence, for example with respect to the nucleotide sequence shown in FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15), and usually share the same chromosomal location. The sequence of FIG. 11 (SEQ ID NO: 17) (SAT 2 CO48) is thought to be such a variant, arising from a polymorphism of the SalAT gene. Members of a gene family usually differ by up to 5% with respect to the reference sequence and need not share the same chromosomal location. The nucleic acid variants according to this aspect of the invention are characterised in that they comprise at least one nucleic acid substitution with respect to the FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) sequence, for example 2 to 30 base changes. The changes are usually single base changes and may be silent or may give rise to amino acid differences.

The different polymorphic forms of the SalAT gene, such as alleles or gene family members, can be identified using amplification techniques with primers derived from the SalAT 1 sequence, particularly primers permitting amplification of the full coding sequence. Suitable primers include portions of the reading frame, for example sequences having a length of around 20 to 40 nucleotides and corresponding to the 5′ and 3′extremities of the coding sequence, for example immediately downstream of the ATG start codon and immediately upstream of the Stop codon. Alternatively, other suitable primers correspond to parts of the 5′ and 3′ untranslated regions, as illustrated in the Examples below. For example, RT PCR on mRNA from an alkaloid poppy, particularly P. somniferum, can be carried out using a primer pair corresponding to a stretch of around 30 bases upstream of the ATG start codon and downstream of the stop codon in FIG. 9 (SEQ ID NO: 13). These techniques permit the identification of variants of the gene within a species, for example P. somniferum. The primers may be adapted to allow inclusion of a restriction enzyme site on the end of the amplification product to facilitate cloning. The variants which can be identified and cloned using such techniques are within the scope of the present invention.

Nucleic acid variants and fragments of the invention may encode an enzymatically active protein or not. Preferred variants encode proteins having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity, as defined previously.

The invention also encompasses nucleic acid molecules that are complementary to any of the foregoing molecules, variants and fragments. In the context of the invention, “complementary” means that Watson-Crick base-pairs can form between a majority of bases in the complementary sequence and the reference sequence. Preferably, the complementarity is 100%, but one or two mismatches in a stretch of twenty or thirty bases can be tolerated. Additionally, complementary stretches may be separated by non-complementary stretches. Particularly preferred examples of complementary sequences are antisense oligonucleotides and ribozymes, which can be used in alkaloid-producing plants such as poppies to down-regulate the production of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase, or related enzymes, thereby modifying the alkaloid profile of the plant.

The nucleic acid molecules of the invention can be used to transform or transfect eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. To this end, the sequences are usually operably linked to transcription regulatory sequences such as promoters, transcription terminators, enhancers etc. The operable link between the acetyltransferase-derived coding sequence and the regulatory sequence(s) may be direct or indirect, i.e. with or without intervening sequences, such as internal ribosome entry sites (IRES). The regulatory sequences may be endogenous to the coding sequence, i.e. they are the regulatory sequences naturally associated with the acetyltransferase sequence in the genome of the plant. Alternatively, the regulatory sequences may be heterologous to the acetyltransferase sequence. In this latter case the resulting construct forms a chimeric gene, comprising a coding sequence derived from the acetyltransferase gene, operably linked to at least one heterologous transcription regulatory sequence. In the context of the invention, the term “coding sequence” signifies a DNA sequence that encodes a functional RNA molecule. The RNA molecule may be untranslated, or may encode an enzymatically-active protein, or enzymatically-inactive protein. Particularly preferred promoters for plant expression are constitutive promoters such as the 35S promoter, or tissue specific, or developmentally specific promoters, or inducible promoters, depending upon which expression pattern is sought.

The inventors have examined the expression pattern of SalAT in P. somniferum. SalAT was expressed in each major plant part analyzed—root, stem, leaf and capsule. This corresponds to the detection of transcript of another morphine biosynthesis-specific gene, corl, in each plant organ analyzed (12). Additionally, salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase and codeinone reductase enzyme activity have each been detected in the cytosolic fraction of isolated latex (12,13). The gene cyp80b1 participates in (S)-reticuline biosynthesis, occurring before a bifurcation in the biosynthetic pathway that leads to more than 80 isoquinoline alkaloids. Cyp80b1 is, therefore, common to several biosynthetic pathways including morphine, sanguinarine and noscapine. Transcript of cyp80b1 was also detected in all plant organs analyzed (12). Accumulation of morphinan alkaloids is thought to correlate with the appearance of laticifer cells in the developing plant and in differentiating plant cell culture (32,33). A reticulated laticifer system associated with the vascular tissue is present through the aerial parts of the poppy plant. In roots, non-reticulated laticifers are present (34,35). The localization of three genes of morphine biosynthesis, cyp80b1, salAT and corl is thus far consistent with the assumption this biosynthesis is, at least in part, associated with laticifer cells. Interestingly, deacetylvindoline acetyltransferase has been localized to laticifer cells in aerial parts of C. roseus (36).

The invention also relates to eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells transformed or transfected by the nucleic acid sequences derived from the acetyltransferase gene. An example of a suitable prokaryotic cell is a bacterial cell. Examples of suitable eukaryotic cells are yeast cells, vertebrate cells such as mammalian cells, for example mouse, monkey, or human cells, or invertebrate cells such as insect cells. Plant cells are particularly preferred. In the context of the present invention, the term “plant” is to be understood as including mosses and liverworts. The plant cells can be any type of plant cells, including monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous plant cells. The cells may be differentiated cells or callus for example suspension cultures. Cells of the genus Papaver are particularly preferred.

According to the invention, cells are transfected or transformed using techniques conventional in the art, in conditions allowing expression of the O-acetyltransferase or derivatives. A number of transformation techniques have been reported for Papaver. For example, microprojectile bombardment of cell suspension cultures may be used (refs. 40, 41). Transformation may also be effected using Agrobacterium tumefaciens (refs 42, 43), or Agrobacterium rhizogenes, (Refs 44, 45) using either cell suspension cultures or tissue explants. International patent application WO 9934663 also reports methods for transforming and regenerating poppy plants.

The cell type that is selected for transformation or transfection depends to a large extent upon the objective to be achieved. In fact, the nucleic acid molecules of the invention can be used to achieve a number of objectives which will be discussed below. Depending on the type of molecule introduced into the plant cell, and the metabolic pathways present in the cell, a wide range of effects can be achieved.

A first objective is to produce recombinant acetyltransferase enzyme, or derivatives thereof. A preferred method for producing proteins having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity comprises the steps of:

-   -   i) transforming or transfecting a cell with a nucleic acid         molecule encoding enzymatically active salutaridinol         7-O-acetyltransferase, in conditions permitting the expression         of the protein having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase         activity,     -   ii) propagating the said cells, and     -   iii) recovering the thus-produced protein having salutaridinol         7-O-acetyltransferase activity.

For the purpose of producing recombinant enzyme, any of the above listed cell-types can be used. Plant cells such as cells of a Papaver species, or insect cells, as demonstrated in the examples below, are particularly, suitable. Bacterial cells, such as E. coli, can also be used.

Nucleic acid constructs which encode enzymatically active salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity suitable for use in this method include the sequences illustrated in FIG. 9 (SEQ ID NO: 13), FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) and FIG. 11 (SEQ ID NO: 17), degenerate equivalents thereof, variants having at least 70% identity to the FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) sequence, variants capable of hybridizing in stringent conditions to the FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15) sequence, and fragments thereof having a length of at least 1200, and preferably 1300 nucleotides. The recombinant enzyme thus produced can be used in in vitro methods for producing pentacyclic morphinan alkaloids, particularly thebaine.

A second, important aspect of the invention is a biotechnological production of thebaine, codeine and morphine. cDNAs encoding several enzymes of morphine biosynthesis have now been isolated. The first enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway for which a cDNA was isolated is norcoclaurine 6-O-methyltransferase (37). The next is the cytochrome P-450-dependent monooxygenase (S)—N-methylcoclaurine 3′-hydroxylase (12,18). These enzymes are common to the morphine, noscapine and sanguinarine biosynthetic pathways. Specific to morphine biosynthesis are salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase (reported herein) and codeinone reductase, the penultimate enzyme of the morphine pathway that reduces codeinone to codeine (13). A cDNA encoding an enzyme involved generally in metabolism, but essential to the activity of the cytochrome P-450-dependent monooxygenase, the cytochrome P-450 reductase, has also been isolated (38). Each of the cDNAs has been functionally expressed in insect cell culture (S. frugiperda Sf9 cells) or in E. coli. An immediate application of these cDNAs is in the metabolic engineering of P. somniferum to obtain altered alkaloid profiles in the plant. Another goal is a biomimetic synthesis of morphinan alkaloids combining chemically- and enzymatically-catalyzed steps. For this latter application, depending upon the plant-type used, additional cDNAs encoding enzymes that mediate transformations occurring between (R)-reticuline and morphine may need to be isolated and introduced.

This major objective of the invention thus relates to the use of the O-acetyltransferase genes and derivatives thereof to produce pentacyclic morphinan alkaloids, particularly thebaine, in plants or in plant cell cultures, and to alter the alkaloid profiles of alkaloid-producing plants such as poppies. In the context of the invention, the term “alkaloid producing plant” signifies plants that naturally have the capacity to produce opium alkaloids, or morphinan alkaloids such as morphine, codeine, thebaine and oripavine.

For this objective, plant cells are used as host cells. For this aspect of the invention, plants that are particularly preferred are those belonging to the families Papaveraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Berberidaceae, Fumariaceae and Ranunculaceae, although other families can also be used. These families are particularly advantageous because they share at least partially, P. somniferum's biosynthetic pathway leading from (R)-reticuline to morphine (3). This pathway is represented diagramatically below:

For the production of pentacyclic morphinans, particularly thebaine, nucleic acid molecules encoding proteins having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity are introduced into plant cells which naturally already have the capacity to produce (R)-reticuline, and preferably also to produce salutaridine and/or salutaridinol. Such plants are preferred because they are highly likely to have the endogenous enzymes necessary to carry out the complete pathway from (R)-reticuline to thebaine.

Tables 2A, 2B, 2C and 2D below provide non-limiting examples of plants able to produce these different products from (R)-Reticuline. In these Tables, ‘+’ provides a non-quantitative indication of the capacity to produce the indicated compound, ‘−’ indicates an inability to produce the indicated compound at detectable levels, and * indicates trace levels, depending on the sensitivity of the analysis (Ref. 39):

TABLE 2A Plants of the genus Papaver producing (R)-reticuline, salutaridine, thebaine and other pentacyclic alkaloids Salutar- The- Plant (R)-Ret. idine baine Codeine Morphine P. bracteatum + + + + * P. cylindricum + + + + + P. orientale + + + + * P. setigerum + + + + + P. somniferum + + + + +

TABLE 2B Plants of the genus Papaver producing (R)-reticuline, salutaridine, thebaine Salutar- The- Plant (R)-Ret. idine baine Codeine Morphine P. pseudo- + + + − − orientale P. lauricola + + + − − P. persicum + + + − − P. caucasium + + + − − P. carmeli + + + − −

TABLE 2C Plants producing (R)-reticuline and salutaridine Salutar- The- Plant (R)-Ret. idine baine Codeine Morphine P. acrochaetum + + − − − P. alpinum + + − − − P. armeniacum + + − − − P. atlanticum + + − − − P. aurantiacum + + − − − P. corona + + − − − P. croceum + + − − − P. curviscapum + + − − − P. degenii + + − − − P. ernesti + + − − − P. fugax + + − − − P. gracile + + − − − P. heldreichii + + − − − P. kerneri + + − − − P. lasiothrix + + − − − P. nudicaule + + − − − P. pilosum + + − − − P. polychaetum + + − − − P. rhaeticum + + − − − P. rubroaurantiacum + + − − − P. sendtneri + + − − − P. strictum + + − − − P. tartricum + + − − − P. tauricola + + − − − C. campestris ¹ + + − − − C. balsamifera + + − − − C. ferruginellus + + − − − C. ruizianus + + − − − ¹Members of the Croton genus (family Euphorbiaceae)

TABLE 2D Plant families producing (R)-Reticuline Plant family (R)-Reticuline Berberidaceae + e.g. Berberis spp. Podophyllum spp. Fumariaceaeae + e.g. Adlumia spp. Cordyalis spp. Dicentra spp. Fumaria spp. Papaveraceae + e.g. Papaver spp. Argemone spp. Bocconia spp. Glaucium spp. Eschscholtzia spp. Ranunculaceae + e.g. Thalictrum spp.

According to a preferred variant, for the production of pentacyclic morphinans such as thebaine, morphine and codeine, a host plant cell is selected that naturally contains a gene encoding salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase. Such plants may be identified in several ways:

-   -   genomic DNA, cDNA or mRNA of the plant hybridises in stringent         conditions to the nucleic acid molecule illustrated in FIG. 10         (SEQ ID NO: 15), or a fragment or variant thereof, and/or     -   the plant is capable of producing thebaine, and possibly other         pentacyclic morphinan alkaloids such as morphine and codeine,         and/or     -   Salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity can be detected in         the latex of the plant.         Specific examples of such plants are shown in Tables 2A and 2B         above. The endogenous salutaridinol-7-O-acetyltransferase         activity is supplemented by the introduction of an exogenous         nucleic acid molecule encoding a protein having         salutaridinol-7-O-acetyltransferase activity. The expression of         the exogenous acetyltransferase leads to over-expression of the         enzyme, and increases thebaine production. The natural alkaloid         profile of the plant is thereby altered. Such alteration can         take the form of an alteration in total alkaloid yield, or in         the type of alkaloid, or in the relative proportions of         different alkaloids, produced by the plant. For example, members         of the genus Papaver, e.g. P. somniferum, can be altered using         the process of the invention to produce thebaine as major or         sole alkaloid.

In general, for the production of morphine and codeine, plants are preferred which have all the necessary endogenous enzymes i.e. plants that naturally produce morphine and codeine, for example those shown in Table 2A.

For the production of thebaine, it is similarly possible to use a plant cell that naturally produces substantial amounts of thebaine, whereby the thebaine produced is the result of an over-expression of acetyltransferase from both the endogenous and exogenous genes. Examples are given in Table 2A and 2B. It is however possible, for thebaine production, to use a cell of a plant that does not naturally produce substantial amounts of thebaine. According to this latter embodiment, the exogenous salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase confers upon the plant or plant cell the ability to synthesize thebaine. Examples of plants which can be used in this variant of the invention are shown in Tables 2C and 2D.

As particularly preferred plants for this embodiment of the invention, members of the Papaveraceae family, particularly Papaver somniferum, Papaver bracteatum, Papaver setigerum, Papaver orientate, Papaver pseud-orientale, Papaver cylindricum can be cited.

According to a further aspect of the invention, the alkaloid profile of an alkaloid-producing plant (such as the Papaveraceae) can be altered by introducing nucleic acid molecules which have inhibitory activity on salutaridinol-7-O-acetyltransferase expression, for example molecules which are complementary to the deacetylase gene or its transcript. Antisense molecules complementary to the transcript of the sequence illustrated in FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15), or a ribozyme capable of hybridising to the said transcript are examples of such inhibitory molecules. Such molecules have the capacity to inhibit functional expression of the endogenous salutaridinol-7-O-acetyltransferase, thus reducing thebaine production. The altered thebaine production results in a global modification of the alkaloid profile of the plant.

As part of the process of production of morphinans, (e.g. morphine, codeine or thebaine), the transformed or transfected cells are propagated to produce a multiplicity of morphinan-producing cells, and then conventional techniques are used to recover the pentacyclic alkaloid(s). The multiplicity of cells produced by propagation may be a cell culture of differentiated or undifferentiated cells, for example callus suspension cultures. Alternatively the cells may be regenerated to provide a whole transgenic or chimeric plant. The invention also encompasses the cell cultures and transgenic plants produced from the transformed or transfected cells. Particularly preferred are transgenic plants of the genus Papaver, for example those in Tables 2A and 2B, which exhibit over-expression of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase. These plants are characterised by the presence of at least one endogenous salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase gene, accompanied by at least one copy of an exogenous salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase gene of the invention. Typically the exogenous SalAT gene can be distinguished from the endogenous gene by the presence of heterologous transcription regulatory sequences.

Other preferred transgenic plants exhibit reduced expression of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase as a result of the introduction of a nucleic acid encoding a salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase inhibitor, for example a ribozyme or an antisense molecule.

The invention also relates to the seed of the transgenic plants of the invention, and also to the opium and straw, or straw concentrates produced by the altered plants.

The morphine biosynthetic genes of the invention permit investigation of the question of why only P. somniferum produces morphine, while other Papaver species such as P. rhoeas, P. orientale, P. bracteatum, P. nudicaule and P. atlanticum do not. SalAT transcript was detected in RNA isolated from P. somniferum, P. orientale and P. bracteatum, but not in RNA from P. nudicaule and P. atlanticum. This is consistent with the expected distribution based upon accumulation of alkaloids having the morphinan nucleus in these species (i.e. morphine in P. somniferum, thebaine in P. bracteatum and oripavine in P. orientale). This is in sharp contrast to those results obtained for corl transcript, which was detected also in Papaver species that are not known to accumulate codeine (12). The genes of alkaloid biosynthesis in P. somniferum will certainly continue to provide useful information on the molecular evolution of plant secondary metabolism in latex systems.

Various aspects of the invention are illustrated in the Figures:

FIG. 1. Schematic biosynthetic pathway leading from salutaridinol to morphine in opium poppy. The 7-hydroxy moiety of salutaridinol is activated by the transfer of an acetyl group from acetyl CoA, catalyzed by salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase. Elimination of acetate to form thebaine is a pH-dependent reaction that can proceed spontaneously. The demethylation of thebaine and codeine are each thought to be catalyzed by cytochrome P-450-dependent enzymes.

FIG. 2. Amino acid sequence comparison of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase to other plant acetyltransferases involved in secondary metabolism. SALAT, salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase from P. somniferum (this work); DAT, deacetylvindoline acetyltransferase of C. roseus (22); BEAT, benzylalcohol acetyltransferase from Clarkia breweri (26, HCBT, anthranilate N-hydroxycinnamoyl/benzoyltransferase from Dianthus caryophyllus (27); DBAT, 10-deacetylbaccatin III-10-O-acetyltransferase and TAT, taxadienol acetyltransferase, both from Taxus cuspidata(28,29). Black boxes indicate conserved residues; white boxes indicate the internal peptide sequences obtained from native salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase; arrows indicate the positions of the peptides used to design oligodeoxynucleotide primers for RT-PCR; # denotes positions of the highly conserved consensus sequence HXXXD (SEQ ID NO: 7 to 12).

FIG. 3. Genomic DNA gel blot analysis of the salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase gene in opium poppy. Genomic DNA isolated from P. somniferum 3-week-old seedlings was hybridized to salAT full-length cDNA and was visualized by phosphorimagery. The number of restriction endonuclease recognition sites that occur within the open reading frame are as follows: EcoRI, 0; HindIII, 0; ApoI, 1; SalI, 1; SpeI, 1; HincII, I; MspI, 3.

FIG. 4. RNA gel blot analysis of A) salAT is expressed in lane 1. root, lane 2. capsule, lane 3 stem and lane 4 leaf of the mature poppy plant and B) salAT transcript accumulation in 3-week-old seedlings of lane 1. P. somniferum, lane 2. P. orientale, lane 3. P. atlanticum, lane 4. P. nudicaule, and lane 5. P. bracteatum. The dark portion of each panel is a photograph of ethidium bromide visualized RNA in the gel prior to blotting. This serves as an RNA loading control. The bottom portion of each panel is the results obtained after blotting and hybridization to salAT full-length cDNA visualized by phosphorimagery.

FIG. 5. SDS-PAGE analysis of fractions from the purification of recombinant salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase from S. frugiperda Sf9 cell culture medium. Lane, 1. protein standards (MBI Fermentas), lane 2. 250 mM imadazole buffer elution of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase from the Talon resin, lane 3. 10 mM imadazole buffer wash of Talon resin, lane 4. Talon column flow-through, lane 5. Sf9 cell culture medium after ammonium sulfate precipitation and dialysis.

FIG. 6. TLC radio-chromatogram of an aliquot of an enzyme assay containing A) [7-³H]salutaridinol, acetyl CoA and boiled enzyme, B) [7-³H]salutaridinol, acetyl CoA and recombinant salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase and C) [7-³H]thebaine standard. D) HPLC-positive ion electrospray mass spectral analysis of the product produced in an assay containing salutaridinol, acetyl CoA and recombinant salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase. E) HPLC-positive ion electrospray mass spectral analysis of thebaine standard.

FIG. 7: Table 1 as referred to in the Examples.

FIG 8: Deduced amino acid sequence of P. somniferum salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase. An identical match was observed between the deduced and directly determined amino acid sequences of ten internal peptides distributed throughout the open reading frame (SEQ ID NO: 14).

FIG. 9: cDNA sequence of P. somniferum salutaridinol 7-O acetyltransferase (1785 nucleotides). The start codon is at position 166, and the Stop at position 1588 (SEQ ID NO: 13).

FIG. 10: Coding sequence of P. somniferum salutaridinol 7-Oacetyltransferase, showing the amino acid sequence also (SEQ ID NO: 15)

FIG 11: Alignment of cDNA sequences of P. somniferum salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase from different sources. The top line shows cDNA cloned from P. somniferum cultivar CO48 (designated herein as SalAT 2 or “SAT 2 CO48” in FIG. 11 (SEQ ID NO: 17)). The bottom line shows cDNA cloned from P. somniferum cell suspension cultures (designated herein as SalAT 1 or “SAT 1 Halle” in FIG. 11). Differences in nucleotide sequence are shown in bold type and changes in amino acid sequence are above and below the nucleic acid sequences (SEQ ID NO: 17)

FIG. 12: The pPLEX X002 binary plasmid used in the transformation of SalAT 2 into poppy explants. The SalAT 2 cDNA was introduced into pPLEX X002 at the multiple cloning site between the S4S4 promoter and the Me1 terminator.

EXAMPLES

In the following Examples, salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase [EC 2.3.1.150] has been characterized by purifying the native enzyme to apparent homogeneity, and determining amino acid sequences for internal peptides. A cDNA clone was then generated by RT-PCR using P. somniferum mRNA as template. Heterologous expression in a baculovirus vector in insect cells yielded functional enzyme that acetylated the 7-hydroxyl moiety of salutaridinol in the presence of acetyl CoA. Enzymic properties were determined for the recombinant protein. The apparent K_(m) value for salutaridinol was determined to be 9 μM, and 54 μM for acetyl CoA.

An identical match was observed between the deduced (FIG. 8 (SEQ ID NO: 14)) and directly determined amino acid sequences of ten internal peptides distributed throughout the open reading frame. The calculated molecular mass of the enzyme is 52.6 kDa, which is consistent with the apparent molecular mass of 50 kDa determined by SDS-PAGE (8). The amino acid sequence of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase is most similar (37% identity) to that of deacetylvindoline acetyltransferase of Catharanthus roseus.

The results obtained by RACE-PCR indicated that the reading frame is 1425 nucleotides long corresponding to 474 amino acids (FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15)). These values correlate well with the transcript size obtained by RNA gel blot analysis. The full length cDNA is illustrated in FIG. 9 (SEQ ID NO: 13). Gene transcript was detected in extracts from P. orientale and P. bracteatum, in addition to P. somniferum. Genomic DNA gel blot analysis indicated that there is likely a single copy of this gene in the P. somniferum genome.

The abbreviations used are: RT-PCR, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; HPLC, high performance liquid chromatography; RACE, rapid amplification of cDNA ends; HPLC-MS, high performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry; SalAT, cDNA encoding salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase; TLC, thin layer chromatography; CAPS, 3-(cyclohexylamino)-1-propanesulfonic acid; corl, cDNA encoding codeinone reductase; cyp80b1, (S)—N-methylcoclaurine 3′-hydroxylase; DEPC, diethylpyrocarbonate

I. Experimental Procedures

Plant Material: Cultured suspension cells of opium poppy Papaver somniferum were provided by the cell culture laboratories of the Lehrstuhl für Pharmazeutische Biologie and of the Leibniz-Institut für Pflanzenbiochemie. Cultures were routinely grown in 1 liter conical flasks containing 400 ml of Linsmaier-Skoog medium (14) over 7 days at 23° C. on a gyratory shaker (100 rpm) in diffuse light (750 lux). Differentiated P. somniferum, P. bracteatum, P. orientale, P. nudicaule, P. atlanticum, P. rhoeas and Chelidonium majus plants were grown outdoors in Upper Bavaria or in Saxony-Anhalt. P. somniferum ssp. setigerum plants were grown in a greenhouse at 24° C., 18 h light and 50% humidity.

Purification of Native Enzyme and Amino Acid Sequence Analysis: Salutaridinol acetyltransferase was purified from P. somniferum cell suspension cultures exactly according to Lenz and Zenk (8). The purified enzyme preparation was subjected to SDS-PAGE to remove traces of impurities and the Coomassie brilliant blue R-250-visualized band representing the acetyltransferase was digested in situ with endoproteinase Lys-C as previously reported (15,16). The peptide mixture was resolved by reversed phase HPLC (column, Merck Lichrospher RP18; 5 μm (4×125 mm); solvent system (A) 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (B) 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid/60% acetonitrile; gradient of 1% per min; flow rate of 1 ml min⁻¹) with detection at 206 nm. Microsequencing of ten of the peptides was accomplished on an Applied Biosystems model 470 gas-phase sequencer.

Generation of Partial cDNAs from P. somniferum: Partial cDNAs encoding salutaridinol acetyltransferase from P. somniferum were produced by PCR using cDNA generated by reverse transcription of mRNA isolated from 7-day-old suspension cultured cells. DNA amplification using either Taq or Pfu polymerase was performed under the following conditions: 3 min at 94° C., 35 cycles of 94° C., 30 s; 50° C., 30 s; 72° C., 1 min. At the end of 35 cycles, the reaction mixtures were incubated for an additional 7 min at 72° C. prior to cooling to 4° C. The amplified DNA was resolved by agarose gel electrophoresis, the bands of approximately correct size (537 bp) were isolated and subcloned into pGEM-T Easy (Promega) prior to nucleotide sequence determination. The specific sequences of the oligodeoxynucleotide primers used are given in the Results section.

Generation of Full-Length cDNAs: The sequence information requisite to the generation of a full-length cDNA was derived from the nucleotide sequence of the partial cDNA produced as described in the Results section. The complete nucleotide sequence was generated in two steps using one salutaridinol acetyltransferase-specific PCR primer (5′-GCC GCA GGC CAA CAAGGG TTG AGG TGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2) for 5′-RACE and 5′-CCC ATC CTG CAC CAG CTA CTT ATC C-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1) for 3′-RACE) and one RACE-specific primer as specified by the manufacturer. The 5′- and 3′-RACE-PCR experiments were carried out using a Marathon cDNA amplification kit (Clontech). RACE-PCR was performed using the following PCR cycle: 3 min at 94° C., 35 cycles of 94° C., 30 s; 60° C., 30 s; 72° C., 2 min. At the end of 35 cycles, the reaction mixtures were incubated for an additional 7 min at 72° C. prior to cooling to 4° C. The amplified DNA was resolved by agarose gel electrophoresis, the bands of the expected size (1265 by for 5′-RACE and 917 by for 3′-RACE) were isolated and subcloned into pGEM-T Easy prior to sequencing.

The full-length clone was generated in one piece using the primers 5′-CCA TGG CAA CAA TGT ATA GTG CTG CT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 3) and 5′-AGA TCG AAT TCA ATA TCA AAT CAA TTC AAG G-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 4) for PCR with P. somniferum cell suspension culture cDNA as template. The final primers used for cDNA amplification contained recognition sites for the restriction endonucleases NcoI and EcoRI, appropriate for subcloning into pFastBac HTa (Life Technologies) for functional expression. DNA amplification was performed under the following conditions: 3 min at 94° C., 35 cycles of 94° C., 30 s; 60° C., 30 s; 72° C., 2 min. At the end of 35 cycles, the reaction mixtures were incubated for an additional 7 min at 72° C. prior to cooling to 4° C. The amplified DNA was resolved by agarose gel electrophoresis, the band of approximately correct size (1440 bp) was isolated and subcloned into pCR4-TOPO (Invitrogen) prior to nucleotide sequence determination.

Heterologous Expression and Enzyme Purification: The full-length cDNA generated by RT-PCR was ligated into pFastBac HTa that had been digested with restriction endonucleases NcoI and EcoRI. The recombinant plasmid was transposed into baculovirus DNA in the Escherichia coli strain DH10BAC (Life Technologies) and then transfected into Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 cells according to the manufacturer's instructions. The insect cells were propagated and the recombinant virus was amplified according to (17,18). INSECT-XPRESS serum-free medium (Bio Whittaker) was used in the enzyme expression experiments.

After infection of 150 ml suspension grown insect cells had proceeded for 3-4 days at 28° C. and 130 rpm, the cells were removed by centrifugation under sterile conditions at 1000×g for 10 min at 4° C. All subsequent steps were performed at 4° C. The pellet was discarded and the medium was slowly brought to 80% saturation with ammonium sulfate under constant slow stirring. The precipitated proteins were collected by centrifugation at 10,000×g for 30 min at 4° C. The pellet was dissolved in a minimal volume of 0.5 M NaCl, 10 mM beta-mercaptoethanol, 2.5 mM imidazole, 20 mM Tris-HCl adjusted finally to pH 7.0 and was dialyzed for 12-16 h against this same buffer. The His-tagged salutaridinol acetyltransferase was purified by affinity chromatography using a cobalt resin (Talon, Clontech) according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Enzyme Assay and Product Identification: The acetylation catalyzed by salutaridinol acetyltransferase was assayed according to Lenz and Zenk (8). The reaction mixture was extracted once with 1 volume CHCl₃ and was resolved by TLC (plates, silica gel 60 F₂₅₄, Merck; solvent system, chloroform:acetone:diethylamine (5:4:1)). The radioactivity present on the TLC plates was localized and quantitated with a Rita Star TLC scanner (Raytest). The identity of the enzymic reaction product as thebaine was ascertained by HPLC-MS using a Finnigan MAT TSQ 7000 (electrospray voltage 4.5 kV; capillary temperature 220° C.; carrier gas N₂) coupled to a Micro-Tech Ultra-Plus Micro-LC equipped with an Ultrasep RP18 column; 5 μm; 1×10 mm). Solvent system (A) 99.8% (v/v) H₂O, 0.2% HOAc (B) 99.8% CH₃CN (v/v), 0.2% HOAc; gradient: 0-15 min 10-90% B, 15-25 min 90% B; flow 70 μl min⁻¹). The positive ion electrospray (ES) mass spectrum for thebaine (retention time 17.4±0.1 min; m/z=312) was characteristic of the standard reference compound.

General Methods: Latex was collected and resolved as previously described (19,20). Low molecular weight compounds were removed from the supernatant of the resolved latex by passage through a PD 10 column into 20 mM Tris, 10 mM—mercaptoethanol, pH 7.5 (Amersham Pharmacia). Total RNA was isolated and RNA gels were run and blotted as described previously (18). Genomic DNA was isolated and DNA gels were run and blotted according to (21). cDNA clones were labeled by PCR labeling with [alpha-³²P]dATP. Hybridized RNA on RNA gel blots and DNA on DNA gel blots were visualized with a STORM phosphor imager (Molecular Dynamics). The entire nucleotide sequence on both DNA strands of the full-length clone was determined by dideoxy cycle sequencing using internal DNA sequences for the design of deoxyoligonucleotides as sequencing primers. Saturation curves and double reciprocal plots were constructed with the FIG. P program Version 2.7 (Biosoft, Cambridge, UK). The influence of pH on enzyme activity was monitored in sodium citrate (pH 4-6), sodium phosphate (pH 6-7.5), Tris-HCl (pH 7.5-9), glycine/NaOH (pH 9-10.5) and CAPS (pH 10-12) buffered solutions.

II. RESULTS

Purification and Amino Acid Sequence Analysis of Salutaridinol: 7-O-Acetyltransferase- Salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase was purified to apparent electrophoretic homogeneity from opium poppy cell suspension cultures and the amino acid sequence of ten endoproteinase Lys-C-generated peptides was determined. The sequences and relative positions of these internal peptides are indicated by unshaded boxes in FIG. 2 (SEQ ID NO: 7 to 12). A comparison of these amino acid sequences with those available in the GenBank/EMBL sequence databases indicated no relevant similarity to known proteins. PCR primer pairs based on a series of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase peptide combinations also yielded only DNA fragments of irrelevant sequence.

Isolation of the cDNA Encoding Salutaridinol 7-O-Acetyltransferase: During the course of the initial RT-PCR experiments, sequence comparison information appeared in the literature for another acetyltransferase of plant alkaloid biosynthesis (22). The translation of the sequence of the cDNA encoding deacetylvindoline 4-O-acetyltransferase was homologous to a series of other putative plant acetyltransferases. A conserved region near the carboxy terminus of the proteins was used to design a degenerate antisense oligodeoxynucleotide primer for PCR. The sense primer was based upon an internal peptide sequence of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase. The primer sequences were as follows:

Sense Primer (FVFDFAK): (SEQ ID NO: 5) 5′ TTT/C GTG/A/T TTT/C GAC/T TTT/C GCA/T AA 3′ Antisense Primer (DFGWG motif SEQ ID NO: 20): (SEQ ID NO: 6) 5′ A/C/G/TGG C/TTT A/C/G/TCC CCA A/C/G/TCC G/AAA A/GTC 3′ The positions of these peptides are indicated by arrows in FIG. 2 (SEQ ID NO: 7 to 12). RT-PCR performed with this primer pair yielded a DNA product of the correct size and sequence for the opium poppy acetyltransferase. RACE-PCR was then used to generate each the 5′- and 3′-portions of the cDNA using nondegenerate nucleotide sequence information provided from the original PCR product.

Sequence Analysis of pSalAT: Translation of the complete nucleotide sequence of salAT yielded a polypeptide of 474 amino acids containing no apparent signal peptide. This is consistent with the cytosolic localization of the enzyme activity (6). The enzyme activity is also operationally found associated with the cytosolic fraction of exuded latex. The salAT amino acid sequence contains residues conserved in other plant acetyltransferases as indicated by the black boxes in FIG. 2 (SEQ ID NO: 7 to 12). The longest contiguous region of conserved amino acids are the five residues DFGWG (SEQ ID NO: 20) near the carboxy terminus that were used for primer design and are indicated by an arrow. Conserved histidine and aspartate residues (HXXXD; denoted by # in FIG. 2) thought to be involved in catalysis as characterized by x-ray crystallography for the bacterial enzymes chloramphenicol acetyltransferase and dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase are also present in salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase (23,24). Covalent modification of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase by treatment with diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC) resulted in the inhibition of enzyme activity (50% inhibition at 3 mM DEPC; 92% inhibition at 5 mM DEPC) (25). The inactivation by 5 mM DEPC could be reduced from 92% to 46% by preincubation of the enzyme with 30 mM acetyl CoA.

The amino acid sequence of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase is most similar (37% identity) to that of deacetylvindoline acetyltransferase of C. roseus (22). Other similar plant acyltransferases involved in secondary metabolism are benzylalcohol acetyltransferase from Clarkia breweri (34%) (26), anthranilate N-hydroxycinnamoyl/benzoyltransferase from Dianthus caryophyllus (25%) (27), taxadienol acetyltransferase (24%) and 10-deacetylbaccatin III-10-O-acetyltransferase (22%), both from Taxus cuspidata (28,29).

Genomic DNA and Gene Expression Analysis: A genomic DNA gel blot analysis of salAT in P. somniferum is presented in FIG. 3. The restriction endonucleases ApoI, SalI, SpeI and HincII each recognize one hydrolysis site within the salAT open reading frame, yielding two hybridizing bands on the Southern blot. There are no recognition sites for HindIII in the open reading frame. Correspondingly, only a single band hybridizes, but it is of approximately one half the predicted length. This indicates the possible presence of a small intron in the gene. Three recognition sites are present for MspI, theoretically resulting in four hybridizing DNA fragments. Two hybridizing bands of predictable length should have been present, one at 180 and 511 bp. The absence of these two bands also indicates that intron(s) may be present in the gene. No recognition site is present for EcoRI in the open reading frame, but two hybridizing bands are present on the gel blot, also suggesting an intron, which contains an EcoRI restriction site. A more thorough analysis of this point awaits isolation of a genomic clone. These results, taken together, support a single gene hypothesis, but do not exclude two very similar, clustered alleles.

This is in stark contrast to the other known morphine-specific biosynthetic gene corl encoding codeinone reductase, for which at least six alleles are expressed (13). RNA gel blot analysis suggests that, as for corl, salAT is expressed in root, stem, leaf and capsule of the mature poppy plant (FIG. 4A) (12,13). There appears to be no organ-specific expression of either of these morphine biosynthetic genes. Analysis of RNA from several members of the genus Papaver demonstrates salAT transcript accumulation in three-week-old seedlings of P. orientate and P. bracteatum, though not in P. atlanticum or P. nudicaule (FIG. 4B). P. orientate accumulates the alternate biosynthetic precursor oripavine and P. bracteatum accumulates the morphine biosynthetic precursor thebaine, both of which structures contain the oxide bridge formed by action of salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase. It was, therefore, expected that these two species should contain hybridizing salAT transcript. Neither P. atlanticum nor P. nudicaule contain an alkaloid with the morphinan skeleton, consistent with the absence of transcript in these two species.

Purification and Functional Characterization of Recombinant Enzyme: The salAT cDNA was constructed to express the recombinant protein with six histidine residues elongating the amino terminus. The protein was then purified from Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9 cell culture medium in two steps (ammonium sulfate precipitation/dialysis, cobalt affinity-chromatography) to yield electrophoretically homogeneous enzyme with an overall yield of 25% and 22-fold purification (FIG. 5). Per liter, the insect cell culture typically produced 2.0 mg (150 nmol s⁻¹) of recombinant enzyme.

Radioassay of pure, recombinant enzyme using [7-³H]salutaridinol as substrate resulted in 100% conversion into a product that co-migrated during TLC with authentic thebaine standard (FIG. 6A-C). The positive ion electrospray mass spectrum of the enzymic product produced when salutaridinol was used as substrate correlated well with that of thebaine standard (FIG. 6D,E). The apparent K_(m) value for salutaridinol was determined to be 9 μM at a fixed concentration of acetyl CoA of 30 mM. The apparent K_(m) value for acetyl CoA was determined to be 54 μM at a fixed concentration of salutaridinol of 10 mM. The V_(max) for the acetylation of salutaridinol was 25 pmol s⁻¹ with a temperature optimum of 47° C. and a pH optimal range of 7-9 under standard assay conditions. The recombinant enzyme acetylated 7(S)-salutaridinol and nudaurine (apparent K_(m) nudaurine 23 μM at 30 mM acetyl CoA, apparent K_(m) acetyl CoA 106 μM at 10 mM nudaurine, V_(max) 19 pmol s⁻¹) at C-7, but not 7(R)-salutaridinol, salutaridine, codeine, morphine or deacetylvindoline. The kinetic values and chemical structures for the alkaloidal substrates salutaridinol and nudaurine are summarized in Table I. As designated by the ratio k_(cat)/K_(m) (salutaridinol):k_(cat)/K_(m), (nudaurine), the enzyme acetylates salutaridinol preferentially to nudaurine by a factor of 3.3.

Strain Deposit:

The cDNA encoding Salutaridinol 7-O-Acetyltransferase from P. somniferum (reading frame only, 1425 nucleotides as shown in FIG. 10 (SEQ ID NO: 15)) has been deposited with the Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen and Zellkulturen GmbH (DSMZ) on 6 Jun. 2002 under Accession number DSM 15044. The SalAT cDNA, carried in vector pCRT7/NT-TOPO in E. coli strain BL21DE3, is under the control of a T7 promoter. The plasmid further carries an ampicillin resistance gene.

Cloning of a Variant of salAT 1 and its Transformation into Poppy.

The cDNA encoding SalAT 1 described above has enabled further SalAT sequences to be cloned from different P. somniferum lines. These results provide evidence of natural genetic variation.

A new cDNA was cloned from messenger RNA isolated from poppy cultivar CO48 (Papaver somniferum). Reverse transcriptase PCR using primers designed to the 5′ and 3′ UTR regions of the SalAT 1 sequence (FIG. 9 (SEQ ID NO: 13)), amplified a product of the predicted size from CO48 which was cloned into pGEM-Teasy. The primers had the following sequences:

(SEQ ID NO: 19) Forward primer: CCTCGAGCCA TTATCAATCC TGTTAAACAG TTAAACAC SAT_126F_XhoI (SEQ ID NO: 18) Reverse primer: CCCTAGGGGA AATGGAGAAA ATCATGATTA CGGAACAC SAT_1639R_AvrII

The primer SAT_(—)126F_XhoI places a XhoI site on the end of the PCR product, and SAT_(—)1639R_AvrII places an AvrII site on the end of the PCR product. This facilitates cloning first into pGEMT and then pPLEX.

Two independent RT PCR clones were sequenced. These two were identical to each other in sequence and are referred to as SAT2 CO48 (or SalAT 2). The SAT2 CO48 (SalAT 2) had an intact ATG for the start of translation and it differed from the original SalAT 1 clone in 6 nucleotides. The new CO48 cDNA (SalAT 2) sequence is illustrated in FIG. 11 (SEQ ID NO: 17) and compared to the original clone. The two clones are in-frame throughout but there were 6 nucleotide differences resulting in 5 amino acid changes as shown.

The SAT2 CO48 (SalAT 2) cDNA was cloned into pPLEX X002 (FIG. 12) between the S4S4 promoter and the Me1 terminator. The S4S4 double promoter derives from subterranean clover stunt virus segment 4 (Boevink et al, 1995). The Me1 terminator derives from Flaveria bidentis malic enzyme gene (Marshall et al, 1997).

Clones were sequenced to verify sequence integrity. The transformation binary pPLEX X002-SAT was transformed into Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain Agll (Lazo et al, 1991). Sequencing verified the SalAT remained intact and unchanged after the transformation into Agrobacterium.

This was used to transform hypocotyl pieces of Tasmanian Alkaloids poppy cultivar CO58-34 (P. somniferum). The method used was as described in patent application “Methods for plant transformation and regeneration” [WO9934663]. Seedling hypocotyl pieces were incubated in a suspension of the Agrobacterium for 10-15 minutes. Explants were then transferred to medium B5O medium consisting of B5 macronutrients, micronutrients, iron salts and vitamins (Gamborg et al, 1968), 20 g.L⁻¹ sucrose using 0.8% Agar, 1 mg.L⁻¹ 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) and 10 mM MES buffer. The pH was adjusted with 1M KOH to pH 5.6.

After four to five days co-cultivation explants were washed in sterile distilled water, until the water was clear of evident Agrobacterial suspension, blotted on sterile filter paper and transferred to the same medium but contained 150 mg.L⁻¹ Timentin (to select against the Agrobacterium) and 25 mg.L⁻¹ paromomycin (to select for transformed plant cells). Explants were transferred to fresh medium of the same composition including antibiotic selection agents, every three weeks.

Explants initially produced transgenic translucent brownish callus consisting of large cells. This was termed type I callus. The transformed nature of the callus was demonstrated by growth on selective medium. Subsequently they formed small regions of white, compact embryogenic transgenic callus usually at about 7-8 weeks, and this was termed type II callus. Transgenic somatic embryos develop on this callus after 3-6 weeks and plantlets develop from these embryos and are transferred to soil.

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1. An isolated nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a protein having at least 85% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14 over a length of at least 400 amino acids and has salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity, wherein said protein has a DFGWG motif (SEQ ID NO:20), a H₁₆₃-XXX-D₁₆₇ motif, a conserved serine (S₃₃), and a conserved cysteine (C₁₅₂).
 2. The isolated nucleic acid according to claim 1, wherein said nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a nucleotide sequence corresponding to at least one heterologous transcriptional regulatory sequence.
 3. The isolated nucleic acid according to claim 1, wherein said protein has at least 90% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14 over a length of at least 400 amino acids.
 4. The isolated nucleic acid according to claim 3, wherein said protein has at least 95% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14 over a length of at least 400 amino acids.
 5. The isolated nucleic acid according to claim 4, wherein said protein has at least 95.5 to 99.9% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14 over a length of at least 400 amino acids.
 6. A cell transformed or transfected by a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a protein having at least 85% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14 over a length of at least 400 amino acids and has salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity, wherein said protein has a DFGWG motif (SEQ ID NO: 20), a H₁₆₃-XXX-D₁₆₇ motif, a conserved serine (S₃₃) and a conserved cysteine (C₁₅₂).
 7. The cell according to claim 6, wherein said cell is a prokaryotic cell.
 8. The cell according to claim 6, wherein said cell is a eukaryotic cell.
 9. The cell according to claim 8, wherein said eukaryotic cell is a yeast cell, a mammalian cell, an insect cell, or a plant cell.
 10. A method for producing a protein having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity, said method comprising i) transforming or transfecting a cell with a nucleic acid comprising a nucleotide sequence that encodes a protein having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity and at least 85% identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 14 over a length of at least 400 amino acids, wherein said protein has a DFGWG motif (SEQ ID NO: 20), a H₁₆₃-XXX-D₁₆₇ motif, a conserved serine (S₃₃), and a conserved cysteine (C₁₅₂), in conditions permitting the expression of the protein having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity, ii) propagating said cells, and iii) recovering the thus-produced protein having salutaridinol 7-O-acetyltransferase activity. 